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This article traces the evolution of SSD (solid-state drive) interfaces, examining the transition from the block storage paradigm inherited from hard disk drives to SSD-specific standards customized to flash memory. Early SSDs conformed to the block abstraction for compatibility with the existing software storage stack, but studies and deployments show that this limits the performance potential for SSDs. As a result, new SSD-specific interface standards emerged to not only capitalize on the low latency and abundant internal parallelism of SSDs, but also include new command sets that diverge from the longstanding block abstraction. We first describe flash memory technology in the context of the block storage abstraction and the components within an SSD that provide the block storage illusion. We then describe the genealogy and relationships among academic research and industry standardization efforts for SSDs, along with some of their rise and fall in popularity. We classify these works into four evolving branches: (1) extending block abstraction with host-SSD hints/directives; (2) enhancing host-level control over SSDs; (3) offloading host-level management to SSDs; and (4) making SSDs byte-addressable. By dissecting these trajectories, the article also sheds light on the emerging challenges and opportunities, providing a roadmap for future research and development in SSD technologies. 

We present the design and implementation of a capacityvariant storage system (CVSS) for flash-based solid-state drives (SSDs). CVSS aims to maintain high performance throughout the lifetime of an SSD by allowing storage capacity to gracefully reduce over time, thus preventing fail-slow symptoms. The CVSS comprises three key components: (1) CV-SSD, an SSD that minimizes write amplification and gracefully reduces its exported capacity with age; (2) CV-FS, a log-structured file system for elastic logical partition; and (3) CV-manager, a user-level program that orchestrates system components based on the state of the storage system. We demonstrate the effectiveness of CVSS with synthetic and real workloads, and show its significant improvements in latency, throughput, and lifetime compared to a fixed-capacity storage system. Specifically, under real workloads, CVSS reduces the latency, improves the throughput, and extends the lifetime by 8–53%, 49–316%, and 268–327%, respectively. 

Modern SSDs achieve high throughput by utilizing multiple independent channels and chips in parallel. However, we find that excessive parallelism inadvertently amplifies the garbage collection (GC) overhead due to the larger unit of space reclamation. Based on this observation, we design PLAN, a novel SSD parallelism management and data placement scheme that allocates different levels of parallelism to different workloads with different needs to minimize the GC overhead. We demonstrate the effectiveness of PLAN by evaluating it against other state-of-the-art designs across various real-world workloads. PLAN reduces write amplification with comparable or better performance to the other designs that are always at full parallelism.